Unit II: The Classical India

Introduction to Classical Indian Drama

Classical Indian drama, rooted in the Natyashastra (attributed to Bharata Muni, c. 200 BCE–200 CE), constitutes a sophisticated system of performance theory that integrates literature, music, dance, and visual art. The treatise codifies the principles of rasa (aesthetic sentiment) and abhinaya (the art of expression), which together shape the actor’s craft and the audience’s experience. E.W. Marasinghe’s Rasa and Abhinaya offers a modern scholarly lens on these concepts, clarifying their philosophical underpinnings and practical applications.

Theoretical Foundations: Rasa Theory

The Eight Rasas

According to the Natyashastra, there are eight primary rasas, each associated with a dominant emotion (sthayibhava) and a presiding deity. Marasinghe emphasizes that rasa is not merely an emotion but an aesthetic relish (asvada) arising from the harmonious interplay of determinants (vibhava), consequents (anubhava), and transitory states (vyabhicaribhava).

The Rasa Formula

Marasinghe distills the generation of rasa into a concise formula, which can be expressed as:

Rasa = Vibhava + Anubhava + Vyabhicaribhava

Where:

• Vibhava (determinants) – the causes or stimuli that evoke the emotion (e.g., setting, characters, events).
• Anubhava (consequents) – the physical manifestations of the emotion (gestures, facial expressions, vocal modulations).
• Vyabhicaribhava (transitory states) – the fleeting auxiliary feelings that enrich the dominant emotion (e.g., anxiety, hope, jealousy).

“Rasa is the quintessence of dramatic art; it transforms the raw material of human feeling into a shared aesthetic experience that transcends individual psychology.” – E.W. Marasinghe, Rasa and Abhinaya

Abhinaya: The Four Modes of Expression

Abhinaya, the technique by which the actor conveys rasa, operates through four interrelated modes. Mastery of these modes enables the performer to embody the sthayibhava and guide the audience toward rasa realization.

1. Āṅgika Abhinaya (Physical Expression)

Involves the entire body—major limbs (anga), minor limbs (upanga), and facial muscles (mukhaja). Codified gestures (mudras) and postures (karana) correspond to specific emotions and narrative actions.

2. Vācika Abhinaya (Verbal Expression)

Encompasses diction, prosody, pitch, and the use of Sanskrit meters (chandas). The actor’s voice must reflect the emotional nuance of the text, employing svara (musical notes) and laya (tempo) to heighten rasa.

3. Āhārya Abhinaya (Costume and Make‑up)

External appearance—costumes, ornaments, makeup (vesha)—signals character type (nayaka, nayika, vidushaka, etc.) and emotional state, providing immediate visual cues to the audience.

4. Sāttvika Abhinaya (Internal/Psychic Expression)

The most subtle mode, involving involuntary physiological responses (tears, horripilation, perspiration) that arise from genuine emotional immersion. Marasinghe argues that sāttvika abhinaya is the hallmark of a consummate actor, bridging the gap between representation and lived feeling.

Bhasa and the Classical Repertoire

Bhasa (c. 3rd–4th century CE) is one of the earliest known Sanskrit playwrights, credited with thirteen extant plays. His works predate the more systematic treatises of later dramatists like Kalidasa, yet they exhibit a remarkable command of rasa and abhinaya. Svapnavasavadatta (The Dream of Vasavadatta) stands out for its intricate plot, psychological depth, and innovative use of dream sequences to explore desire and duty.

Historical Context

• Period: Early Classical Sanskrit theatre (Gupta era).
• Performance Venue: Temple courtyards, royal courts, and itinerant troupes.
• Audience: Mixed – aristocracy, scholars, and commoners; expectations shaped by Natyashastra conventions.

Synopsis of Svapnavasavadatta

1. Act I – The Dream: King Udayana of Vatsa dreams of the princess Vasavadatta of Avanti, igniting śṛṅgāra rasa.
2. Act II – The Quest: Udayana, guided by his minister Yaugandharayana, embarks on a covert mission to win Vasavadatta.
3. Act III – The Disguise: Udayana assumes the guise of a Brahmin; the play employs āhārya abhinaya to signal his dual identity.
4. Act IV – The Confrontation: Political intrigue and a rival suitor (King Pradyota) generate raudra and vīra rasas.
5. Act V – The Resolution: The dream is realized; the union of Udayana and Vasavadatta restores harmony, culminating in a blended śṛṅgāra–adbhuta rasa.

Rasa Mapping in the Play

Structural Innovations

Bhasa’s use of a dream prologue (svapna) as a narrative catalyst anticipates later dramatic devices such as the purvaranga (preliminary) and ankavatara (act division). The play’s tight causal chain—dream → quest → disguise → confrontation → fulfillment—exemplifies the arthaprakriti (plot structure) prescribed by the Natyashastra: bija (seed), bindu (drop), pataka (episode), prakari (interlude), and karya (conclusion).

Characterization through Abhinaya

• Udayana (Nayaka): Embodies vīra and śṛṅgāra; his sāttvika abhinaya (trembling hands at the dream’s intensity) signals inner conflict.
• Vasavadatta (Nayika): Portrayed through delicate āṅgika gestures (lotus‑hand mudra) and lyrical vācika passages, evoking śṛṅgāra and karuna.
• Yaugandharayana (Vidushaka): Provides hāsya via exaggerated āṅgika comic timing and satirical vācika wordplay.
• Pradyota (Pratinayaka): Generates raudra through forceful vācika and imposing āhārya (royal armor).

Applying Marasinghe’s Framework to Svapnavasavadatta

Marasinghe’s analytical lens foregrounds the dynamic interplay between vibhava, anubhava, and vyabhicaribhava in each act. For instance, in Act I the vibhava is the nocturnal palace setting and the king’s yearning; the anubhava manifests as Udayana’s soft sighs, half‑closed eyes, and murmured verses; the vyabhicaribhava includes fleeting hope, anxiety, and wonder. The cumulative effect produces a sustained śṛṅgāra rasa that permeates the audience’s consciousness.

Case Study: The Dream Sequence (Act I)

1. Vibhava: Moonlit chamber, scent of jasmine, distant flute.
2. Anubhava: Udayana’s body relaxes (śithila), eyes glisten (ashru), voice drops to a whisper (mandra).
3. Vyabhicaribhava: Śanka (doubt), Āśā (hope), Vismaya (wonder).
4. Resulting Rasa: Śṛṅgāra infused with Adbhuta.

Marasinghe notes that the dream functions as a vibhava for the entire play, seeding the bija (seed) of the plot. The actor’s sāttvika abhinaya—involuntary tears at the vision of Vasavadatta—authenticates the rasa, allowing the audience to partake in the asvada (relish).

Performance Practice and Reception

Traditional Staging

• Space: Open‑air mandapa with a raised platform (rangapitha).
• Music: Live mridangam, flute, and veena underscoring emotional beats.
• Choreography: Nritta (pure dance) interludes during adhikarana (transitions) to maintain laya.

Modern Interpretations

Contemporary directors (e.g., Ratan Thiyam, Kavalam Narayana Panikkar) have re‑imagined Svapnavasavadatta using minimalist sets, multimedia projections, and cross‑cultural casting. These productions retain the rasa architecture while interrogating gender, power, and postcolonial identity, demonstrating the theory’s elasticity.

Comparative Perspectives

Marasinghe’s scholarship bridges these traditions, arguing that rasa’s emphasis on shared aesthetic experience offers a more participatory model than Aristotelian catharsis. Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta serves as a living laboratory where these theoretical claims can be tested in performance.

Critical Questions for Discussion

1. How does the dream prologue function as both a vibhava for śṛṅgāra and a structural bija for the entire play?
2. In what ways does Bhasa’s integration of hāsya (through the vidushaka) modulate the dominant śṛṅgāra rasa without diluting it?
3. Compare the sāttvika abhinaya required for Udayana’s yearning with the Stanislavskian “affective memory.” What are the philosophical divergences?
4. How might a modern director reconfigure the āhārya abhinaya to comment on contemporary gender politics while preserving the rasa framework?
5. Assess Marasinghe’s claim that rasa is “universalizable” across cultures. What evidence from Svapnavasavadatta supports or challenges this?

Further Reading

• Marasinghe, E.W. Rasa and Abhinaya: A Study in Indian Aesthetics. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995.
• Bhasa. Svapnavasavadatta. Trans. M. R. Kale. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1967.
• Bharata. Natyashastra. Trans. Manomohan Ghosh. Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1950.
• Gargi, B. The Natyashastra and the Modern Stage. Journal of Indian Theatre, 12(3), 2018, pp. 45‑68.
• Thiyam, R. “Re‑imagining Bhasa: Directing Svapnavasavadatta in the 21st Century.” Asian Theatre Journal, 34(2), 2021, pp. 210‑235.

Assignments

• Essay (3000 words): Analyze the interplay of vibhava, anubhava, and vyabhicaribhava in two contrasting acts of Svapnavasavadatta, referencing Marasinghe’s theoretical model.
• Performance Workshop: In groups, stage a 10‑minute excerpt focusing on one rasa. Document the abhinaya choices (āṅgika, vācika, āhārya, sāttvika) in a reflective journal.
• Comparative Presentation: Prepare a 15‑minute talk comparing rasa theory with a Western dramatic theory of your choice (e.g., Brecht’s epic theatre, Artaud’s theatre of cruelty).

Conclusion

Unit II equips students with the analytical tools to dissect classical Indian drama’s aesthetic machinery. By grounding Marasinghe’s exposition of rasa and abhinaya in the concrete text of Bhasa’s Svapnavasavadatta, learners experience the living continuity between theory and practice—a continuity that continues to inspire global theatre makers today.